Glossary 2026

A nonprofit repository that collects, stores, and distributes plasmids contributed by research laboratories. Its records often include sequence information, depositor details, plasmid maps, and links to related publications.

A short DNA or RNA molecule designed to bind to a specific target, such as a protein.

The process of changing and maintaining the orientation of a spacecraft, to control which direction it is facing in space.

The process of identifying the actor responsible for an incident or activity through technical, contextual, and political analysis.

The basic structural part of a plasmid that contains the elements needed for it to function and be maintained in a cell. Additional genetic material is inserted into this underlying framework.

A virus that infects bacteria and uses the bacterial cell to reproduce.

Molecules that exist in two forms that are mirror images of each other, like left and right hands, but cannot be perfectly aligned.

Different ways of writing the same genetic instructions in DNA. These patterns can sometimes provide clues about how a sequence was designed.

Semiconductor radiation sensor that uses cadmium zinc telluride to directly convert radiation particles into electrical signals at room temperature. It is primarily used for the detection of gamma rays and X-rays.

A rocket engine firing that provides the velocity needed for a spacecraft to leave its current orbit and begin its journey toward another destination.

A strategy that seeks to deter an action by making it unlikely to succeed or by making the objective too difficult to achieve. By depriving an aggressor of confidence in its ability to accomplish its goals, the strategy aims to discourage aggression before it occurs.

Technology that can serve both civilian and military purposes; be used offensively or defensively; or be misused for unintended purposes.

A DNA molecule that has been deliberately modified to carry genetic material into a cell. Engineered vectors are used as tools in genetic engineering and can include plasmids and other delivery systems.

Evo 2 is a genomic foundation model capable of generalist prediction and design tasks across DNA, RNA, and proteins.

A spacecraft trajectory that brings a satellite into close proximity with another object while continuing on a non-capture path.

Shorthand for semiconductor fabrication plant. This refers to factories that use photolithography to create integrated circuits from silicon wafers. These devices are commonly used as cutting-edge microprocessors (including AI chips), solid-state memory, photodetectors, embedded processors, or microcontrollers.

The proportion of guanine (G) and cytosine (C) bases in a DNA sequence. Differences in GC composition can reflect biological origin or design choices.

A principle within the Biological and Chemical Weapons Conventions that defines prohibited weapons according to their intended harmful use, rather than by reference to specific substances.

An orbit in which a spacecraft remains for an extended period with minimal activity while awaiting a future mission phase, conserving fuel and power until operations resume.

The 1 to 2 gigahertz (GHz) range of the radio spectrum, as designated by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).

A nation’s independent intelligence and monitoring assets, usually used in the context of arms control treaties.

NDA techniques encompass a range of methods and instruments that enable the on-site characterization of nuclear materials during inspections, often without the need to take samples. Wherever possible, NDA is preferred because it eliminates the need for international transport, prevents secondary waste during sample disposal, and often produces at least preliminary results during the inspection itself.

The overarching framework of hardware, software, and personnel that allows national leaders to monitor threats, authorize the use of nuclear weapons, and transmit launch orders to military forces in the field.

Vacuum tube containing a photocathode that emits electrons upon exposure to electromagnetic radiation such as UV or visible light. A dynode structure under high voltage (1,000+ V) multiplies these electrons, which are then measured at an anode, resulting in an electric charge signal.

A small, usually circular piece of DNA that can exist separately from a cell’s main chromosome. In biotechnology, plasmids are commonly used to carry and introduce genetic material into cells.

The planned arrangement of genetic elements within a plasmid, such as inserted genes, promoters, and other functional components. Different design choices can reflect the purpose of an experiment and the methods used to build it.

A collection or database of plasmids that researchers can deposit, document, and often share with others. Repositories may also contain information about who submitted a plasmid, its sequence, its components, and related publications.

A DNA sequence that controls when and how strongly a gene is switched on. Promoter choice is an important part of genetic design.

The rate of oscillation of an electromagnetic wave or electrical signal, typically ranging from about 3 kilohertz (kHz) to 300 gigahertz (GHz) (1 Hertz = 1 oscillation per second).

Orbital maneuvers where two spacecraft intentionally approach the same orbit and maneuver in close proximity, sometimes culminating in physical docking.

The time a satellite system takes to rotate through its orbit and pass over the exact same geographic location on the rotating Earth again.

Material that emits light when exposed to ionizing radiation, either through direct ionization, as in the case of alpha or beta rays, or through secondary emissions induced by gamma rays or neutrons. This light emission can then be detected by light sensors, which usually provide a signal proportional to the ionizing energy deposited in the scintillator.

A DNA or RNA sequence associated with a harmful pathogen, toxin, or biological function that could pose a biosecurity risk.

Solid-state semiconductor device comprising many pixels of avalanche diodes, capable of producing an electrical signal in response to single light photons. These devices are extremely compact, with more than 1,000 pixels per mm2, and operate at low voltages ranging from 20 to 100 V.

A class of nuclear fission reactor with an electrical output of less than 300 MW, based on modular design principles to enable faster and lower cost construction, as well as more flexible and scalable deployment across a range of applications, including general electricity production, facility power, and industrial heat production.

Imaging of an object in sections using a penetrating probe signal. By acquiring multiple individual projections or slices, a computational tomographic reconstruction can be used to recreate a 2D or 3D image of the original object and its interior.

An aircraft without a human pilot aboard, commonly known as a drone.